Forest : The Natural Resources of Earth

Forest Biological Diversity

Forest biological diversity refers to all life forms found within forested areas and the ecological roles they perform. It encompasses not just trees, but the multitude of plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit forest areas - and their associated genetic diversity. Forest biological diversity can be considered at different levels, including ecosystem, landscape, species, population and genetic. Complex interactions can occur within and between these levels. This complexity allows organisms to adapt to continually changing environmental conditions and to maintain ecosystem functions.

Forest

Status and Trends in Forest Area

Forest ecosystems are a critical component of the world’s biodiversity as many forests are more bio-diverse than other ecosystems. Forests cover 31 percent of the global land area. Approximately half the forest area is relatively intact, and more than one-third is primary forest (i.e. naturally regenerated forests of native species, where there are no visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes are not significantly disturbed). The total forest area is 4.06 billion hectares, or approximately 5000 m² (or 50 x 100m) per person, but forests are not equally distributed around the globe. More than half of the world’s forests are found in only five countries (the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China) and two-thirds (66 percent) of forests are found in ten countries. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing loss of biodiversity.

Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades. Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990. Agricultural expansion continues to be the main driver of deforestation and forest degradation and the associated loss of forest biodiversity. Large-scale commercial agriculture (primarily cattle ranching and cultivation of soya bean and oil palm) accounted for 40 percent of tropical deforestation between 2000 and 2010, and local subsistence agriculture for another 33 percent.

Trees in a Forest

Forest species and genetic diversity

It is not only the trees that make a forest, but the many different species of plants and animals that reside in the soil, understorey and canopy. Estimates of the total number of species on Earth range from 3 million to 100 million (May, 2010). Although it is widely reported that forests harbour 80 percent of terrestrial plants and animals, such a precise estimate is unlikely to be accurate given the changing state of knowledge of planetary biodiversity. While trees are the defining component of forests and their diversity can give an indication of overall diversity, there are many other ways to determine the biodiversity significance of forests.

Different Species in a Forest

Forest species diversity

1. Trees 60,082

The Global Tree Search database reports the existence of 60,082 tree species. Nearly half of all tree species (45 percent) are members of just ten families. Nearly 58 percent of all tree species are single-country endemics. As of December 2019, a total of 20334 tree species had been included in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2019 a), of which 8056 were assessed as globally threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable). More than 1400 tree species are assessed as critically endangered and in urgent need of conservation action.

2. Forest species diversity: Other forest plants, animals, and fungi Plants

About 391000 species of vascular plants are known to science of which about 94 percent are flowering plants. Of these, 21 percent are likely threatened by extinction (Willis, 2017). Some 60 percent of the total are found in tropical forests (Burley, 2002).

3. Fungi

Some 144000 species of fungi have been named and classified so far. However, it is estimated that the vast majority (over 93 percent) of fungal species are currently unknown to science, indicating that the total number of fungal species on Earth is somewhere between 2.2 and 3.8 million (Willis, 2018).

4. Vertebrate species

Close to 70000 vertebrate species are known and described (IUCN, 2019 a). Of these, forests provide habitats for almost 5 000 amphibian species (80 percent of all known species), close to 7 500 bird species (75 percent of all birds) and more than 3 700 different mammals (68 percent of all species) (Vie, Hilton-Taylor and Stuart, 2009).

5. Invertebrate species

Some 1.3 million species of invertebrates have been described. However, many more exist, with some estimates ranging from 5 million to 10 million species (Ødegaard, 2000). Most are insects, and the vast majority live in forests.

6. The interconnected roles of forest plants, animals, and fungi

Soil microbes, forest-dependent pollinators (insects, bats, birds and some mammals), and saproxylic beetles play very important parts in maintaining the biodiversity and ecosystem functions of forests. Similarly, mammals, birds and other organisms can play major roles in forest ecosystem structure including on the distribution patterns of trees through their direct roles in seed dispersal, seed predation and herbivory, and indirectly through predation on such ecological architects (Beck, 2008). Along tropical coasts, mangroves provide breeding grounds and nurseries for numerous species of fish and shellfish and help trap sediments that might otherwise adversely affect sea grass beds and coral reefs – the habitats of a myriad of marine species.

7. People, biodiversity and forests

Much of human society today has at least some interaction with forests and the biodiversity they contain and all people benefit from the functions provided by components of this biodiversity in the carbon, water and nutrient cycles and through the links with food production.

8. Benefits to lives and livelihoods

In both low- and high-income countries and in all climatic zones, communities that live within forests rely the most directly on forest biodiversity for their lives and livelihoods, using products derived from forest resources for food, fodder, shelter, energy, medicine and income generation.

9. Conservation and sustainable use of forests and forest biodiversity

There are ways to manage the world’s forest ecosystems that will ensure the conservation and sustainable use of their biodiversity. Creation of protected areas has historically been the forest governance instrument most often adopted to pursue biodiversity objectives. This approach has achieved positive results in terms of conserving species and establishing barriers to the progress of deforestation. Natural reserves alone are not sufficient to conserve biodiversity. They are usually too small, create barriers to species migration and are vulnerable to factors such as climate change. Additionally, protected areas contain only a fraction of existing forest biodiversity. This means that there is a need to look beyond protected areas and to mainstream biodiversity conservation into forest management practices.

10. Forests in protected areas

Globally, 18 percent of the world’s forest area, or more than 700 million hectares fall within legally established protected areas such as national parks, conservation areas and game reserves (IUCN categories I-IV). The largest share of forest in protected areas is found in South America (31 percent) and the lowest in Europe (5 percent). Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 (to protect at least 17 percent of terrestrial area by 2020) has thus been exceeded for forest ecosystems as a whole. However, these areas are not yet fully representative of the diversity of forest ecosystems. A study conducted for SOFO 2020 by the UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Center on trends in protected forest area by global ecological zones between 1992 and 2015 found that more than 30 percent of tropical rain forests, subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests were within legally protected areas (IUCN categories I-VI) in 2015.

Subtropical humid forest, temperate steppe and boreal coniferous forest should be given priority in future decisions to establish new protected areas since less than 10 percent of these forests are currently protected. Areas with high values for both biodiversity significance and intactness, for example the northern Andes and Central America, southeastern Brazil, parts of the Congo Basin, southern Japan, the Himalayas and various parts of Southeast Asia and New Guinea, should likewise be given high priority.

Key findings of Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020

1. Forests cover nearly one-third of the land globally

The world has a total forest area of 4.06 billion hectares (ha), which is 31 percent of the total land area. This area is equivalent to 0.52 ha per person1– although forests are not distributed equally among the world’s peoples or geographically. The tropical domain has the largest proportion of the world’s forests (45 percent), followed by the boreal, temperate and subtropical domains. More than half (54 percent) of the world’s forests is in only five countries–the Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, the United States of America and China.

2. The world’s forest area is decreasing, but the rate of loss has slowed

The world has lost 178 million ha of forest since 1990, which is an area about the size of Libya. The rate of net forest loss decreased substantially over the period 1990–2020 due to a reduction in deforestation in some countries, plus increases in forest area in others through afforestation and the natural expansion of forests. The rate of net forest loss declined from 7.8 million ha per year in the decade 1990–2000 to 5.2 million ha per year in 2000–2010 and 4.7 million ha per year in 2010–2020. The rate of decline of net forest loss slowed in the most recent decade due to a reduction in the rate of forest expansion.

3. Africa has the highest net loss of forest area

Africa had the largest annual rate of net forest loss in 2010–2020, at 3.9 million ha, followed by South America, at 2.6 million ha. The rate of net forest loss has increased in Africa in each of the three decades since 1990. It has declined substantially in South America, however, to about half the rate in 2010–2020 compared with 2000–2010. Asia had the highest net gain of forest area in 2010–2020, followed by Oceania and Europe. Nevertheless, both Europe and Asia recorded substantially lower rates of net gain in 2010–2020 than in 2000–2010. Oceania experienced net losses of forest area in the decades 1990–2000 and 2000–2010.

4. Deforestation continues, but at a lower rate

An estimated 420 million ha of forest has been lost worldwide through deforestation since 1990, but the rate of forest loss has declined substantially. In the most recent five-year period (2015–2020), the annual rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million ha, down from 12 million ha in 2010–2015.

5. More than 90 percent of the world’s forests have regenerated naturally

Ninety-three percent (3.75 billion ha) of the forest area worldwide is composed of naturally regenerating forests and 7 percent (290 million ha) is planted. The area of naturally regenerating forests has decreased since 1990 (at a declining rate of loss), but the area of planted forests has increased by 123 million ha. The rate of increase in the area of planted forest has slowed in the last ten years.

6. Plantations account for about 3 percent of the world’s forests 

Plantation forests cover about 131 million ha, which is 3 percent of the global forest area and 45 percent of the total area of planted forests. The highest share of plantation forest is in South America, where this forest type represents 99 percent of the total planted-forest area and 2 percent of the total forest area. The lowest share of plantation forest is in Europe, where it represents 6 percent of the planted forest estate and 0.4 percent of the total forest area. Globally, 44 percent of plantation forests are composed mainly of introduced species. There are large differences between regions: for example, plantation forests in North and Central America mostly comprise native species and those in South America consist almost entirely of introduced species.

7. More than 700 million ha of forest is in legally established protected areas 

There is an estimated 726 million ha of forest in protected areas worldwide. Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in protected areas, at 31 percent.

The area of forest in protected areas globally has increased by 191 million ha since 1990, but the rate of annual increase slowed in 2010–2020.

8. Primary forests cover about 1 billion ha 

The world still has at least 1.11 billion ha of primary forest – that is, forests composed of native species in which there are no clearly visible indications of human activities and the ecological processes have not been significantly disturbed. Combined, three countries – Brazil, Canada and the Russian Federation – host more than half (61 percent) of the world’s primary forest. The area of primary forest has decreased by 81 million ha since 1990, but the rate of loss more than halved in 2010–2020 compared with the previous decade.

9. More than 2 billion ha of forest has management plans 

Most of the forests in Europe have management plans; on the other hand, management plans exist for less than 25 percent of forests in Africa and less than 20 percent in South America. The area of forest under management plans is increasing in all regions – globally, it has increased by 233 million ha since 2000, reaching 2.05 billion ha in 2020.

10. Fire is a prevalent forest disturbance in the tropics 

Forests face many disturbances that can adversely affect their health and vitality and reduce their ability to provide a full range of goods and ecosystem services. About 98 million ha of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million ha of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.

11. The world’s forests are mostly publicly owned, but the share of privately owned forests has increased since 1990

Seventy-three percent of the world’s forests is under public ownership, 22 percent is privately owned, and the ownership of the remainder is categorized as either “unknown” or “other” (the latter mainly comprising forests where ownership is disputed or in transition). Public ownership is predominant in all regions and most sub-regions. Of the regions, Oceania, North and Central America and South America have the highest proportions of private forests. Globally, the share of publicly owned forests has decreased since 1990 and the area of forest under private ownership has increased. Public administrations hold management rights to 83 percent of the publicly owned forest area globally. Management by public administrations is particularly predominant in South America, where it accounts for 97 percent of management responsibility in publicly owned forests. The share of public administration management rights has decreased globally since 1990, with an increasing share of publicly owned forests managed by private businesses, entities and institutions and by indigenous and tribal communities.

13. The world’s forest growing stock is declining 

The world’s total growing stock of trees decreased slightly, from 560 billion m3 in 1990 to 557 billion m3 in 2020, due to a net decrease in forest area. On the other hand, growing stock is increasing per unit area globally and in all regions; it rose from 132 m3 per ha in 1990 to 137 m3 per ha in 2020. Growing stock per unit area is highest in the tropical forests of South and Central America and West and Central Africa. The world’s forests contain about 606 gigatonnes of living biomass (above- and below-ground) and 59 gigatonnes of dead wood. The total biomass has decreased slightly since 1990 but biomass per unit area has increased.

14. Total forest carbon stock is decreasing

Most forest carbon is found in the living biomass (44 percent) and soil organic matter (45 percent), with the remainder in dead wood and litter. The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020; carbon density increased slightly over the same period, from 159 tonnes to 163 tonnes per ha.

15. About 30 percent of all forests is used primarily for production

Globally, about 1.15 billion ha of forest is managed primarily for the production of wood and non-wood forest products. In addition, 749 million ha is designated for multiple use, which often includes production. Worldwide, the area of forest designated primarily for production has been relatively stable since 1990 but the area of multiple-use forest has decreased by about 71 million ha.

16. About ten percent of the world’s forests is allocated for biodiversity conservation 

Globally, 424 million ha of forest is designated primarily for biodiversity conservation. In total, 111 million ha has been so designated since 1990, of which the largest part was allocated between 2000 and 2010. The rate of increase in the area of forest designated primarily for biodiversity conservation has slowed in the last ten years.

17. The area of forest designated primarily for soil and water protection is increasing

An estimated 399 million ha of forest is designated primarily for the protection of soil and water, an increase of 119 million ha since 1990. The rate of increase in the area of forest allocated for this purpose has grown over the entire period but especially in the last ten years.

18. More than 180 million ha of forest is used mainly for social services 

An area of 186 million ha of forest worldwide is allocated for social services such as recreation, tourism, education research and the conservation of cultural and spiritual sites. The area designated for this forest use has increased at a rate of 186 000 ha per year since 2010.

Few famous forest in the world

1. Taiga, Asia-Europe-North America

Taiga is technically not a forest, rather it is a Biome. It’s a biological and an ecological system in the form of a forest. Larches, spruces and pines are among the Coniferous trees dominant in this forest. Taiga covers most of the Northern Russia and North America below the Tundra belt. In Russia alone, the land mass occupied by the Taiga as Russian Boreal Forest is close to 12,000,000 square kilometers or 4,633,225 square miles, which is more than the size of China and India put together. And if we add the North American Taiga as well, then the size becomes even bigger.  This is truly the largest forest covering the surface of the earth.

Courtesy: Twitter @nasykka

2. The Amazon forest, South America

The Amazon Forest, the most popular and well-known of all the forests in this list and the world, the Amazon Jungle or Amazonia is indeed a wonder to behold. It is a broadleaf forest and is spread through numerous countries such as Peru, Brazil Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Surinam, Guyana and Venezuela. About 7,000,000 square kilometers or 2,702,715 square miles large, this Rainforest is a mammoth in size. The Amazon is the biggest collection of biological diverse species. It is said that one out of every ten living species could be found in the Amazons. Thousands and thousands of mammals, birds, animals and insects have been scientifically registered here. The Amazons absorbs gigatons of Carbon dioxide gas. It is one of the most important factors of the World Climate.

Courtesy: Twitter @WBGlobal1

3. Congo Forest, Africa

Congo rainforest is part of the Congo Basin in the African Continent, which is about 2,023,428 square kilometers or 781,249 square miles, which is more than the size of Alaska or Saudi Arabia. Congo Rainforest is the second largest tropical forest in the world. Out of over 10,000 identified species of plants in the Congo Rain Forest, about twenty-nine percent of them are uniquely indigenous. Close to 1,000 species of birds and more than 500 species of fishes have been recorded in here. About 500 variety of mammals has been registered. Congo Rainforest is considered to be one of the most important ecological balancers.

Courtesy: Twitter @savecongoforest

4. Tongass, North America

Tongass is a temperate rainforest situated in the Southeastern side of Alaska. It’s the United States of America’s largest forest stretching up to a size of 68,062 square kilometers or 26278 square miles, i.e. more than the size of Sri Lanka. Made mostly of western Sitka spruce, western hemlock and red cedar, the forest is covered with Western Red Cedar. The Tongass has been divided into 19 designated Wilderness Areas. It houses one of the rarest flora and endangered fauna, because of its remote location. Tongass is truly a pride of the United States of America.

Courtesy: Twitter @tongassNF

5. Sunderban, Asia

Sundarbans is about 10,000 square kilometers or 3861 square miles large and occupies almost the entire Bangladesh and about forty percent of it extends into India. Sundarban has been designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It is the largest halophytic mangrove–excessive water and salt tolerant–rainforest in the world. In India, the Sundarbans is recognized as a National Park, Tiger Reserve and a Biosphere Reserve, while in Bangladesh they are classified as Protected Forests. The home of the famous White Bengal Tiger, it is the largest Tiger Reserve in the world.

Courtesy: Twitter @TSAIINDIAPROGRAM

6. Daintree Forest, Australia

Covering the Northeastern border of Queensland Australia, the Daintree is the largest continuous forest in Australia. About 1200 square kilometers or 463 square miles in size, and north of Cairns and Mossman, the Daintree Forest runs along the coastline of the Daintree river. Species wise, not only more than ninety percent of bats and butterflies live in this forest, but it is also home to more than ten thousand insect species. Many of the Australia’s indigenous reptiles and birds could be found here. Named after the famous geologist and photographer Richard Daintree, this forest is an ancient relic as well.

Courtesy: Twitter @BuenosVijesAL

7. Kinabalu National Park, Asia

Kinabalu National Park was Malaysia’s first National Park and the very first place to be named World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It is about 754 square kilometers or 291 square miles big which means it is larger than Singapore. It surrounds the Mount Kinabalu in Malaysian Borneo, which is the world’s youngest non-volcanic mountain in the world. It contains more than four thousand five hundred species and is considered one of the most important biological sites in the world. Kinabalu Park is widely popular among the tourist for its relative convenience.

Courtesy: Twitter @tourismmalaysia

Why forests are in NEWS

Deforestation and Afforestation Rates

A. Deforestation 

Between 1980 and 1990, the Asian and Pacific Region annually lost approximately 4.4 million ha of natural forest. Roughly 1.6 million ha per annum of these forests were converted to non-forest land uses, and 2.2 million ha to other wooded land. Although the establishment of forest plantations, at 2.7 million ha per annum, partially offset the loss of natural forests, the net loss of forests is still approximately 1.7 million ha per annum. The annual areas lost from deforestation (1990 to 1995) are particularly high for many Southeast Asian countries, namely Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Philippines, Cambodia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Viet Nam.

The region has lost almost 95 per cent of its frontier forests (WRI 1999c) and the situation in the South Pacific will be similar if strict control is not exercises. The Islamic Republic of Iran and Afghanistan have lost all such forests, and People’s Republic of China and India today have just 20 percent of their original forest cover. Of these remaining forests, less than 10 per cent can be classified as frontier. However, the deforestation trend has not been uniform across all countries in the region. The forest and wooded areas are increasing in countries such as India, People’s Republic of China, Australia, New Zealand, Armenia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, mostly due to large forest plantations. Forest plantations, though, are no substitute for natural forest which serves as a reservoir of biodiversity that once gone, cannot be recovered.

Deforestation

B. Afforestation and Plantations 

The Asian and Pacific Region maintains its distinction of having the largest area of forest plantation, accounting for 83 per cent (66.9 million ha) of the world’s total planted area. Of the seven countries with forest plantation estates greater than 1 million ha in 1990, five are in the region: People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Republic of Korea and Vietnam. This shift to plantation forests relieves pressure on natural forests whilst developing reliable sources of industrial raw material for the future.

In Turkmenistan, for example, a programme has been developed with the aim of protecting natural forests in parallel to the creation of a new plantation resource. Several countries are also pursuing plantation development in tandem with policies of withdrawing natural forests from production. People’s Republic of China has one of the most extensive plantation programmes in the region, oriented towards wasteland reclamation and land stabilization. The country plans to plant an additional 26 million ha of forests in the Yangtze and Yellow River basins by the year 2030. The high rate of plantation establishment in the region reflects, in general, the commitment of governments to plantations as the principal source of raw materials for the future.

In some countries, a wide array of incentives is offered to promote plantation establishment. For example, in the Philippines, both large- and small-scale industrial plantations are provided with financial and non-fiscal incentives; India provides free seedlings and other extension services; and Indonesia offers tax concessions, and promotes joint ventures between state forest enterprises and private-sector investors. However, there has been a declining trend in the region for establishing large industrial tree plantations, with a shift towards community woodlots, farm forestry and agro-forestry plantations. For example, in India, farmers in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana States established 26000 ha of poplar (Papulus deltoides) in 1990, which is now being sold for the manufacture of matches, plywood and other wood products.

Afforestation

Causes and Consequences of Forest Loss and Degradation

A. Causes

Deforestation and forest degradation is caused by a number of factors. These include natural factors, such as fire, disease and weather-induced stress, but more often than not, are factors exacerbated by human activities, such as land clearing for agriculture, overgrazing, over-extraction of timber and harmful logging practices. The direct causes of deforestation and degradation, however, are obscured by the underlying causes of poverty, inequitable resource tenure, population pressures, corruption, misguided policies, and institutional failures. A major direct cause of deforestation in the Asian and Pacific Region is the clearing of forests, both planned and unplanned, for permanent cropland and pasture. Poor forest harvesting practices, followed by encroachments, once concession operations have ceased, contribute significantly to the degradation of the remaining forests. In many cases, shifting cultivation and overgrazing have caused widespread degradation of forests in the region, and even complete deforestation in extreme instances. The estimated number of people involved in shifting cultivation in the region varies between 25 million and 40 million. Although the destruction of forests directly attributed to felling of industrial timber is extensive, it is difficult to accurately estimate the actual extent. The harvesting operations for logging concessionaires are usually defined by government regulations and codes of practice, which in some areas, particularly in Southeast Asia will include a reforestation programme. However, the limited resources of governments often prohibit adequate monitoring of the logging practices of concessionaires. In recent years, fires have caused serious damage to forests in the region. It is reported that in India, fires affect about 53 per cent of the forest area, or about 35 million ha, each year.

In People’s Republic of China, 43690 ha were burnt in 1999; in Mongolia more than 3 million ha were burnt in 1996; and in Indonesia, 3.2 million ha were burnt in 1982-1983, and 160000 in 1994. The period 1997-1998 was the worst for forest fires in the region. The wild fires that raged in Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Australia and Mongolia prompted their respective governments to declare national disasters and seek international support to fight the fires. In Indonesia alone, the 1997-1998 fires burned an estimated 2 million ha in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Large quantities of smoke generated by slow burning ground fires affected human health both in situ and in the neighbouring countries. The smoke also interfered with transportation systems and disrupted the multi-million dollar tourism industry. The fire was exacerbated by the drought associated with the El Nino weather pattern, which turned most forests into drier habitats, and increased the flammability of forest vegetation.

Severe outbreaks of insects, pest and diseases can potentially be environmentally devastating with costly economic repercussions, in particular for plantation forestry (with a reduced diversification of species). The causes of pests and diseases vary, depending largely on a host of factors that include climate, human interference, destruction of habitats of the pest’s natural predators, or even the introduction of exotic plant species that are vulnerable to insect pest and disease attacks.

B. Consequences

The costs and negative effects of deforestation are well documented. Where deforestation occurs in an unplanned and wasteful manner, the economic losses can be substantial, particularly from the loss of timber and other commercial resources. At community forest level, deforestation causes severe hardships and social disruptions for forest-dwelling and forest-dependent people. While the effects of deforestation are relatively simple to identify, the effects of forest degradation are subtler. Degradation can lead to a host of problems including loss of soil fertility and nutrient recycling capability, reduction in productivity and growth, decline in species richness, erosion of genetic diversity, decline in stock density and crown cover, reduction in the economic value of timber crops, and decreases in wildlife populations. Another serious negative impact of deforestation and degradation is the loss of wildlife habitat. Forests, particularly natural forest areas, are the single most important repositories of terrestrial biological diversity.

Forest Policies and Strategies

Forest policies, planning, approaches and management objectives are dependent on the nature of forest resources with which countries are endowed, the development priorities of governments and the respective societal demands. In the past, a primary objective of forest management had been the production of wood products. However, it was realized, that the approach was not sustainable, given the fast dwindling natural resources. The 1992 Rio de Janeiro UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) influenced many governments in the region to focus their management strategy on overall sustainable forest management with multiple objectives. Since then, there has been a notable shift in the forest management practices of most countries in the region.

1. National

I) Management Approach

(a) Natural Forests

Most natural forests in the region are generally publicly owned, with the exception of some countries in the South Pacific sub-region, where indigenous people and local communities own most forests under respective customary laws. As natural forest areas are state-owned, the responsibility for their management and protection rests with governments. The approach to managing these areas is usually based on the principles of timber production, where forest resources are harvested under a selective felling system based on the sustained yield principle.

Well-defined forest management systems include, for example, Indonesia where in 1989, the Indonesian Selective Cutting and Planting System or TPTI was introduced, a system which placed greater importance on natural regeneration and enrichment planting. Since 1989, Sri Lanka has enforced a moratorium on logging of all-natural forests in the country. Relaxation of the moratorium is unlikely as most of the important forest areas are badly degraded and need respiration for another 20-25 years. In the South Pacific sub-region, the structure of the New Zealand forest estate, with a large exotic plantation resource in addition to indigenous virgin or regenerated forests, has enabled the country to implement a distinctive approach to Sustainable Forest Management (SFM).

(b) Protected Areas

The management objectives for protected areas and biodiversity clearly differ from those for natural forests, and present special challenges. Protected areas management places emphasis on maintaining environmental and ecosystem integrity, minimizing human impacts, conserving biological diversity, and enhancing wildlife habitats. The management record of protected areas in the region is variable, with generally good management in the developed countries and weak management in the developing countries. New and innovative ways are needed to combine conservation objectives (especially in high population areas) with people’s livelihoods, such as in India, where compatible co-existence of people and conservation are being tried (Ahmed 1997). Several innovative funding initiatives have been undertaken in the region. Cook Islands, for example, imposes a tax on tourists to generate conservation revenue; Bhutan has a conservation fund to which donors are encouraged to contribute; and New Zealand has an elaborate set of grants, covenants and other ways to finance conservation on private lands.

(c) Plantation Forests

The objectives of plantation management are different from managing natural forests as they are usually focused on intensive production of wood, using only a few selected tree species. The situation is compounded by the difficult situation faced by the forest and wood industry, largely due to the declining profitability of forest products, particularly timber. Government incentive packages to assist private plantations vary from country to country and are dictated largely by the market and the purpose for which the plantations are established. In Australia and New Zealand plantations will continue to expand given their competitive edge in processing forest products. However in developing countries the provisions of incentives to expand forest plantations are driven by different reasons. For example in 1999, the Philippines prohibited logging within old-growth forests, canceling many commercial-logging concessions. In order to meet the future wood requirements of the country, emphasis was given to plantation development and an array of incentives (including export tax exemptions and duty free imports) was offered to the private sector. Industrial Forest Management Agreements(IFMAs) were promoted, which fundamentally combined natural forest management objectives with industrial tree plantations. The motivation for plantations, however, is not confined to production alone but is also aesthetic. In Japan, multi-storied plantations, which closely resemble natural forests, are developed using low impact harvesting techniques that reduce the denudation of mountain sides and at the same time provide various aesthetic services for people to enjoy.

(d) Management of Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFPs)

Only recently have government forestry agencies in the Asian and Pacific Regions recognized the economic potential of  NWFPS and the need for appropriate management. Forestry development

officials and planners have tended to overlook the effective traditional management systems, adopted by forest boundary communities, and have been biased towards conventional and often incompatible timber production practices. Aside from some traditional and localized management systems, the extraction of  NWFPs is generally carried out in a haphazard, opportunistic and inefficient manner. The absence of preliminary inventories and the dispersed nature of collectors of NWFP resources are major impediments for its effective management. However, selling for a fixed rate the rights to collect NWFPs from large units of forests over a specified period (often one to five years) controls commercial harvesting, although there is rarely close supervision of the collection after the rights have been assigned.

(e) Social Forestry Management

There is a growing trend in the region for greater involvement of  NGOs, community organizations, and local people in managing public forests. Under a range of collaborative forest management mechanisms, such as the Joint Forest Management in India and management by forest user groups of Nepal, local people are now increasingly being given full or partial forest management responsibilities. Local people generally have the right to collect certain forest products for their own use at no cost. Some communities are promised a share of the proceeds from future harvests of forests that regenerate as a result of protection provided by local people. In Nepal, for example, the government hands over forests to forest-usergroups (FUGs). Negotiated management agreements include provision for managed utilization of forest products, including grass, fodder, fuelwood and NWFPs. Recently, there have been moves to initiate FUG-managed sawmills and the harvesting of timber from community forests, although these proposals are reportedly meeting resistance from within the Forest Department.

(f) Urban Forestry Management

The focus of urban forestry management has recently broadened beyond landscape architecture and horticulture for aesthetic purposes, to include concerns related to air quality, cooling of cities, protection of water supplies and nature conservation. Presently only 34 per cent of population live in cities, but it is projected that by 2025 it will jump to 55 percent. The status of urban forestry development varies greatly throughout the Asian and Pacific region, particularly in the developing countries with some cities, such as Delhi, with a negligible per cent of city area as a green area, as compared with over 25 per cent Seoul (1996 figures). In Australia and New Zealand, there is a considerable area under urban reserves, unlike very densely populated (and less developed) cities such as Jakarta, Colombo and Dhaka. Green space per city dweller in the poor cities of the region are generally far below the international minimum standard of nine square metres, set by the World Health Organization(WHO). In Japan, for example, improvement of forests located in suburbs and villages is a priority concern of policy for the future intention of bringing nature closer to people.

II) New Trends in Forestry Management

(a) Forestry Planning

Over the past decade, countries in Asian and the Pacific region have significantly progressed in reorienting their forest policies and strategies to lay the foundation for sustainable forest management consistent with UNCED and Agenda 21. Conventional forestry sector planning placed emphasis on assessing forest timber resources and formulating strategies, primarily in relation to forest industries. With emerging issues that underscore the multiple value of forests, its scope has been expanded to address the causes of deforestation, needs for reforestation, contribution of forests to food security and rural energy, and building capacity of national forestry administrations. Countries in the region are now recognizing the critical importance of redefining their planning approaches by emphasizing on the iterative and participative process instead of preparing blueprints and static plans. Many countries in the region have not conducted a comprehensive and statistically sound forest inventory since the 1970s or early 1980s.

(b) Forestry Policy Formulation

National Forestry Action Programmes (NFAP), which have been endorsed by the IntergovernmentalPanel on Forests (IPF), provide the unifying framework for re-orienting the forestry policy formulation process. The role of FAO in this process has been lauded, as it played a catalytic role in linking donor countries with recipient developing countries in the region. Many countries in the region, such as Bangladesh, Bhutan, People’s Republic of China, Fiji, Indonesia, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and VietNam have adopted the NFAP framework. These countries are presently at various stages of programme execution often with the help of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank, and various bilateral organizations. Indonesia, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Sri Lanka developed NFAPs several years ago, and are now in the process of reviewing and revising them. It is encouraging to note that planning activities are underway, or soon to be initiated, in India, Myanmar, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu.

(c) Supporting Forestry Research and Educational Institutions

Worldwide forestry research has suffered from a lack of resources, and it has not been sufficiently interdisciplinary to provide an integrated view of forestry. To cope with this situation, some institutions have taken measures to provide continuing support to research activities, such as including research components in development projects; using universities to undertake research; and privatizing research works. Forestry educational institutions are also facing the pressure to respond to the new challenges of producing graduates with more rounded skills capable of meeting the demands of sustainable forest management. The Asian and Pacific region has a large number of forestry research and education institutions. These include the Centre for International ForestryResearch (CIFOR), the Southeast Asian Regional Research Programme of the InternationalCentre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), the Regional Community Forestry Training Centre (REOF), the ASEAN Tree Seed Centre, and the InternationalCentre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).

(d) Decentralizing Forest Management

Local governments, community organizations, and the private sector, are being given increasing levels of responsibility for forest management and protection. The movement is most pronounced in South Asia, where social forestry programmes have evolved considerably since the 1970s. In the South Pacific, tribal and clan ownership and management of forest resources has been a long-standing tradition. In Fiji, the Native Land Trust Board assists in the management of forestland. In some countries in the region, centralized management and protection of forests has been ineffective due to its inability to manage forest resource conflict at the local level. This view provided the impetus for decentralizing forest management functions. The idea has gained adherence in the region, with the Philippines leading the process and gaining considerable experience for other countries to learn from.

2. Regional and Global Initiatives

Throughout the Asian and Pacific Region, attention is now being focused on bringing forests under sustainable management following the UNCED process. National initiatives, tailored to specific local needs and conditions, exist in nearly every country of the region. Relevant examples include India, who (with Britain) sponsored a meeting to agree on UNCED reporting arrangements on forestry; Malaysia, who (with Canada) sponsored a review process three years after Rio; Indonesia, who sponsored the Bandung Global Forestry Forum to promote global consensus; Japan, who (with Canada) sponsored work on criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management; and Australia, who supported a post-UNCED review of forest products certification and trade. Several countries in the Asian and Pacific Region are working to mainstream the principles of UNCED by adopting voluntary codes of responsible practice. The South Pacific code on logging and trade in products from natural forests pioneered this approach, and was followed by the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asian and Pacific Region and various national codes. Indonesia and Malaysia are voluntarily introducing sustainability produced timber products. Similarly, policies are in place or being adopted in accordance with the principles laid out by the UNCED process. The challenge, however, lies in translating these into operational terms, using the ITTOGuidelines for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests, UNCED’s Forest Principles, and other broad forest management concepts. In this respect, the ITTO, “Year 2000 Objective” is to make all producer countries enter a commitment to produce their tropical product exports from sustainably managed sources by the year 2000. Most tropical timber producing countries in Asia and the Pacific Region, and most of the region’s major consumers subscribe fully to ITTO’s Year 2006 Objective. While most producer countries in the region are working towards meeting the objective, only Indonesia and Malaysia are judged to have a reasonable prospect of bringing their entire production forests under sustainable management by year 2000. Australia, People’s Republic of China, Japan, New Zealand and the Republic of Korea are active members of the MontrealProcess, working to develop criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management in temperate and boreal forests. Indonesia and Malaysia recently proposed an initiative to develop regional criteria and indicators for Asia and the Pacific Region. The World Bank and the ADB, two multilateral funding organizations supporting forestry in the region, continue to play key roles in providing financial assistance.

Conclusion

The 21st Century has been called the Asian and Pacific Century, given the tremendous dynamism the region has shown over the past 50 years. Despite the crises it has faced, countries in the region have manifested their ability for rapid recovery, and it is anticipated that forestry sector development will remain a key component in the continued growth of many countries. The dominant forestry issues in the past twenty years remain key concerns. With the increasing population, and economic development competing demands for the region’s forest resources are correspondingly increasing, thereby adding to the already formidable requirements the region places on its forests. Some countries are coping with these pressures and are moving rapidly towards more sustainable forest management, others, however, are likely to experience continued, or even accelerated, forest degradation in the short term. On a more positive note, the region is paving the way for some innovative approaches to forest management. It leads the world in having more areas reforested, and has demonstrated that it can mobilize civil societies and local governments to become effective stewards of forest resources. The initiatives for increasing efficiency and becoming environmentally friendly in producing and utilizing forest resources, the improvements in forest planning capability, and the revision of forestry legislation are some of the key achievements that the region has shown in response to the new realities of forest management. The move towards a more market-based economy is having a profound impact in the region. With emphasis on market competition, it is likely that the Asian and Pacific Region will face increased competition from other areas which produce forestry products. This may force the less competitive companies and producing areas to go out of business, but others are likely to adapt by improving efficiency, diversifying product lines, developing or acquiring new raw material sources, and targeting niche markets.

In summary, the major trends in forestry in recent years the Asian and Pacific Region are the re-orientation of forestry towards local people, a more participatory approach to forest management, and the development of strategic alliances to meet, simultaneously, the needs of local communities, industries, and national and global environmental interests. Forestry organizations and institutions are undergoing major restructuring to accommodate and facilitate this movement. Similarly, policies are being redefined to suit the needs of the people. It is likely that such restructuring and re-orientation will continue into the next millennium, for the betterment of the forestry sector in the Asian and Pacific Region.

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